This is not an exhaustive list; there are many other questions that may arise. Professionals that are involved with your child can point you to the best pathway of support. Should you require further information, advice or support, you can contact the Scottish Society For Autism’s Advisory Service.
The term Autism Spectrum Disorder describes a range of developmental conditions, which includes Autism, High-Functioning Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Regardless of the specific diagnosis, Autism Spectrum Disorders are characterised by difficulties with social interaction, social communication and flexibility of thought. This is called the Triad of Impairments (Lorna Wing 1996). The following description of the ‘Triad of Impairments’ has been adapted from Jordan (1997):
Social – Impaired, delayed or atypical social development, especially interpersonal development. Difficulty with forming, maintaining and understanding the social complexities of relationships.
For example: may not engage in social interaction except to have immediate needs met; may play alongside other children but will not share the experience; may strive for friendships but has difficulty understanding the wishes and feelings of others; may have little or no empathy.
Language and communication – Impaired and unusual language and communication, verbal and non-verbal. Unusual pragmatic and semantic aspects of language, which includes the use of language, meaning and grammar of language.
For example: may not develop language; may only use language for needs; may be fluent in language but may have difficulty comprehending the full meaning behind a sentence; may be very literal in the interpretation of language; may not recognise intonation in others speech; may speak in a monotone way; may have difficulties in every aspect of turn taking in conversation; may not identify gestures and body language as part of the communication.
Thought and behaviour – Rigidity of thought and behaviour and impoverish social imagination. Ritualistic behaviour, reliance on routines, extreme delay or absence of ‘pretend play’.
For example: may react adversely to any change in routine or environment; may follow a set pattern of rituals; may have difficulty forming mental representations of what something will look like; may lack imaginative play; may have difficulty distinguishing between reality and fiction; may react adversely if rules are not followed.
In addition to the Triad of Impairments, people with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) also commonly have related difficulties, which include:high anxiety; resistance to changes; difficulty in transferring skills from one environment to another; vulnerability; sensory processing; poor diet and/or eating; co-ordination; sleeping; toileting; organisation and planning etc
A diagnosis of High Functioning Autism is given when the Triad of Impairments are present but there is no cognitive delay. A diagnosis of Asperger Syndrome is given when the Triad of Impairments are present but there is no cognitive delay or language delay.
People with High Functioning Autism and Asperger Syndrome therefore have an average or above average IQ. However, these individuals can still experience extreme deficits in the areas of social relationships, flexibility of thought and behaviour and language and communication.
In addition to the Triad of Impairments, people with Asperger Syndrome have related difficulties, which include:
Overly precise or stereotyped use of language; limited non-verbal communication skills e.g. facial expression/gestures; social insensitivity; special interests which are related regardless of listener’s interest.
There is a common misconception that Asperger Syndrome is a mild form of Autism, however, the core difficulties (Triad of Impairments) are the same and having a higher IQ may mean that children are more aware of their difficulties.
For further information
Attwood, T (1998) Asperger’s Syndrome A Guide For Parents and Professionals. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Happe, F (1994) Autism An Introduction to Psychological Theory. UCL Press.
Gillberg, C. (2002) A Guide to Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge University Press.
Wing, L (1996) The Autistic Spectrum A Guide For Parents and Professionals. Constable London.
Estimates of how many people have Autism Spectrum Disorders vary widely, however in Scotland, it is currently estimated, one child in every one hundred and sixty seven children (PHIS 2001) is affected.
Every individual with ASD is unique and the extent to which the Triad of Impairments and associated difficulties effect them will vary considerably.
ASD is a pervasive developmental disorder; this means it affects all aspects of a child’s development. Autism Spectrum Disorder is currently a lifelong condition.
Reflected in a positive light ASD can bring a number of strengths within each individual. Again these will vary and may present through the personality of the individual.
Individuals with Asperger Syndrome often have higher intelligence than the general population. Individuals with ASD often have: enhanced memory for factual information and detail; are concrete and logical thinkers; are explicitly honest; are great visual learners; are perfectionists; show great perseverance and determination and a small number have special ‘savant’ abilities.
The exact causes of Autism Spectrum Disorders are not yet known, however research indicates that genetic factors are important (Gillberg, C. and Coleman, M. 1992). It is unlikely that a single Autism gene will be found, and it is estimated that as many as ten genes may be involved. Other factors involved may include: pregnancy/birth; biological; neuro-chemical/brain chemistry; neurological (related to the brain).
Many children with ASD opt for isolation rather than socialisation. Common difficulties experienced include: refusal to sit with the rest of the family; refusal to leave the house; avoidance of joining clubs; avoidance to try new activities; reluctance to go out to new places.
Withdrawal can occur for a number of different reasons including: sensory issues; anxiety; fear of the unknown; lack of social understanding; difficulty in predicting other’s behaviour; inflexibility of thought and imagination.
Professionals that can give you advice and information concerning withdrawal include:
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Community Learning Disabilities Nurse
Clinical Psychologist
Autism Advisor
Community Paediatrician
Social Worker
For further information
Attwood. T. (1988) Asperger’s Syndrome A Guide for Parents and Professionals. Jessica Kingsley Publisher, London and Philadelphia.
Ives, M and Munro, N. (2002) Caring for a Child with Autism. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London and Philadelphia, National Autistic Society.
Jenison Public Schools. (1994) The New Social Stories Book. Future Horizons.
Peeters, T. (1997) Autism from theoretical understanding to educational intervention. Whurr Publishers Ltd. London.
Plummer. D. (2001) Helping Children to Build Self-Esteem. A Photocopiable Activities Book. Jessica Kingsley, London, New York.
Welton, J and Telford, J. (2004) What did you say? What do you mean? An illustrated guide to understanding metaphors.
Many children with Autism Spectrum Disorders experience sleeping difficulties, however the nature of the difficulty can vary from child to child. Types of difficulties commonly described by parents include: difficulty in getting to sleep; night-time waking; nightmares/night terrors; resistance to going to bed.
Sleep problems can occur for various reasons, for example: the child’s stage of development; the child’s personality; chemical imbalance; appropriacy of sleep environment; sensory issues. After a period of assessment to determine the exact nature of the difficulty, consistently applied good sleep hygiene (management of sleep environment and clearly structured sleep routine) can minimize most of the above difficulties.
Professionals that can give you information and advice on sleep difficulties include:
Community Paediatrician
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Community Learning Disabilities Nurse
Clinical Psychologist
Autism Advisor
Sleep Counsellor-Sleep Scotland
For further information
COSPPA.(1999) Living with Autism, Learning to Sleep. COSPPA Pub.
Dickinson, P. and Hannah, L. (1998) It Can Get Better-dealing with common behaviour problems in young autistic children. A Guide for parents and carers. London NAS Pub.
Quine, L. (1997) Solving Children’s Sleep Problems-A step- by -step guide for parents. Cambs. Beckett Karlson Ltd
Durand, VM. (1998) Sleep Better-A Guide to improving sleep for children with special needs. Maryland. Brookes.
A variety of eating difficulties may be present in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Types of difficulties commonly experienced include: child self-restricting their diet; eating non-food substances; will only eat soft foods/ will only eat highly flavoured foods; reluctance to try new foods; stealing food from other’s plates; throwing food; regurgitation; reluctance to stay at table; over eating; storing food in mouth.
Eating difficulties can occur for a variety of reasons including: child’s stage of development; sensory processing difficulties; fear of change; dietary intolerance; inflexibility of thoughts; motor co-ordination. After a period of assessment to determine the exact nature of the difficulty, a consistently applied structured eating programme can minimize most of the above difficulties.
Professionals that can give you information and advice on eating difficulties include:
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Community Learning Disabilities Nurse
Clinical Psychologist
Autism Advisor
Dietician
Community Paediatrician
For further information
COSPPA. (1999) Living with Autism, Learning to Eat and Drink. COSPPA Pub.
Dickinson, P., Hannah, L. (1998) It Can Get Better-dealing with common behaviour problems in young autistic children. A Guide for parents and carers. London NAS Pub.
Legge, B. (2002) Can’t Eat; Won’t Eat. Dietary Difficulties and Autistic Spectrum Disorders. London. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Le Breton, M. (2001) Diet Intervention and Autism. Implementing the Gluten and Casein Free Diet for Autistic Children and Adults. A Practical Guide for Parents. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. London and Philadelphia.
Lewis, L. (2001) Special Diets for Special Kids Two. Future Horizons, Arlington, TX.
ASD is primarily a social communication disorder. Each individual will have a degree of difficulty with communication. Problems with communication will vary and may include: no speech; late development of speech; pragmatic and semantic difficulties; good verbal language but poor language comprehension; literal interpretation of language.
Other common problems in this area include: awareness of non-verbal communication; understanding social conventions in relation to communication; maintaining effective eye contact; initiating social interaction; maintaining conversation; following own topic of conversation while disregarding feedback from listener; difficulty in following more than one speaker in any given interaction.
Advice and information on any communication difficulty can be given by:
Speech and Language Therapist
Educational Psychologist
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Community Learning Disabilities Nurse
Clinical Psychologist
Autism Advisor
Community Paediatrician
Autism Outreach Education Teacher
For more information
Potter, C and Whittaker, C. (2001) Enabling Communication in children with Autism. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London and Philadelphia.
Quill, K.A. (1995) Teaching Children with Autism Strategies to Enhance Communication and Socialisation. Delmar Publishers, Inc.
Stewart, K. (2002) Helping a Child with Nonverbal Learning Disorder or Asperger’s Syndrome. A Parents’ Guide. New Harbinger Publications, Inc.
A variety of toileting difficulties may be present in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Types of difficulties commonly experienced include: constipation; diahorrea; intermittent constipation/diahorrea; reluctance to sit on toilet; smearing faeces; reluctance to wipe; bed wetting.
Toileting difficulties can occur for a variety of reasons including: child’s stage of development; fear of change; lack of fluids; infection; sensory issues; biomedical factors.
After a period of assessment to determine the exact nature of the difficulty, a consistently applied structured toileting programme can help minimize many of these difficulties.
Professionals that can give you information and advice on toileting difficulties include:
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Community Learning Disabilities Nurse
Clinical Psychologist
Autism Advisor
Community Paediatrician
Dietician
Autism Outreach Education Teacher
For further information
Bogdashina, O. (2003) Sensory Perceptual Issues in Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Different Sensory Experiences Different Perceptual Worlds. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
COSPPA. (1999) Living with Autism, Learning to go to the toilet. COSPPA Pub.
Dickinson, P .and Hannah, L. (1998) It Can Get Better-dealing with common behaviour problems in young autistic children. A Guide for parents and carers. London NAS Pub.
Wheeler, M. (1998) Toilet Training for Individuals with Autism and Related Disorders- A Comprehensive guide for Parents and Teachers. Dallas. New Horizons
Wrobel, M. (2003) Taking care of Myself A Hygiene, Puberty and Personal Curriculum for young People with Autism. Future Horizons.
Many parents report hygiene concerns regarding their child with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. Common difficulties include: refusal to go into bathroom; won’t sit down in bath; opening bowels in bath; won’t put toothbrush in mouth, not washing independently.
Difficulties with hygiene occur for a variety of reasons including: sensory issues; fear of what will happen; difficulties with sequencing and planning actions; lack of motivation; co-ordination.
After a period of assessment to determine the exact nature of the difficulty, a consistently applied structured hygiene programme can help minimize many of these difficulties described.
Professionals that can give you information and advice on hygiene issues include:
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Community Learning Disabilities Nurse
Dental Special Care Team
Clinical Psychologist
Autism Advisor
Community Paediatrician
For further information
Clements, J, andZarkowski, E. (2000) Behavioural Concerns and Autistic Spectrum Disorders-Explanations and Strategies for Change. London. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
COSPPA. (1999) Living with Autism, Learning to be clean. COSPPA Pub.
Dickinson, P. and Hannah, L. (1998) It Can Get Better-dealing with common behaviour problems in young autistic children. A Guide for parents and carers. London NAS Pub.Wheeler, M. (1998) Toilet Training for Individuals with Autism and Related Disorders- A Comprehensive guide for Parents and Teachers. Dallas. New Horizons
Repetitive play, preference for sameness and skilful relationships with objects are all characteristics of ASD’s. Common repetitive activities include: continuously watching the same part of a video; lining up toys; twiddling part of a toy; asking repetitive questions; ritualistic routines.
There may be several reasons for this type of behaviour which include: lack of imagination; imposing own routine to make sense of the world; difficulty with organisation and planning; sensory stimulation; biochemical issues; difficulties interacting socially.
Professionals that can give you information and advice include:
Health Visitor
Community Learning Disabilities Nurse
Clinical Psychologist
Autism Advisor
Community Paediatrician
Speech and Language Therapist
Educational Psychologist
Autism Outreach Education Teacher
For further information
Bogdashina, O. (2003) Sensory Perceptual Issues in Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Different Sensory Experiences Different Perceptual Worlds. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Hannah, L. (2001) Teaching Young Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorders to Learn. A practical guide for parents and staff in mainstream schools and nurseries. National Autistic Society.
Whitkaker, P. (2001) Challenging behaviour and autism, making sense – making progress. A guide to preventing and managing challenging behaviour for parents and teachers. The National Autistic Society.
Lawson, W. (2001) Understanding and Working With the Spectrum of Autism. An Insider’s View. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London and Philadelphia.
Many children with ASD often display behaviours that give rise for concern.
Typical behaviours include: verbal abuse; aggression towards others; aggression towards oneself; fixation with fires; no sense of danger; impulsivity; making personal remarks to other people; repetitive questioning; panic attacks.
With all behaviour it is important to understand the function that the behaviour serves so that management can be effective.
Professionals that can give you advice and information include:
Clinical Psychologist
Community Paediatrician
Speech and Language Therapist
Autism Advisor
Educational Psychologist
Community Learning Disability Nurse
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Dietician
Autism Outreach Education Teacher
For further information
Clements, J and Zarkowska, E. (2000) Behavioural Concerns and Autistic Spectrum Disorders. Explanations and Strategies for Change. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London and Philadelphia.
Mathews, J and Williams, J. (2000) The Self-Help Guide for Special Kids and Their Parents. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London and Philadelphia.
Ozonoff, S., Dawson, G., and McPartland, J. (2002) A Parents Guide to Asperger Syndrome and High Functioning Autism. How to Meet The Challenges and Help Your Child Thrive. The Guilford Press, London, New York.
Whitkaker, P (2001) Challenging behaviour and autism, making sense – making progress. A guide to preventing and managing challenging behaviour for parents and teachers. The National Autistic Society.
Some children with ASD will ask about these terms because they have heard them being used, others will ask as they are aware in some way that it has been used about themselves.
Children with any disability often have low self-esteem, it is therefore important that the condition is explained within a positive framework. Some parents choose to tackle this themselves, others seek professional input.
There are a number of different books that have been written by children with ASD about ASD. There are also a number of fictional books in which the lead character has ASD. Some parents have found these helpful as a way of introducing the term to their children. (See reference below)
Professionals that can give you advice and information about introducing your child to ASD include:
Clinical Psychologist
Community Paediatrician
Educational Psychologist
Speech and Language Therapist
Autism Advisor
Community Learning Disability Nurse
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Autism Outreach Education Teacher
For further information
Doherty, K., McNally, P and Sherrard, E. (2000) I have Autism…What’s that? Northern Ireland.
Hadden, M. (2003) The Curious Incident of The Dog in The Night-Time. Johnathan Cape, London.
Hall, K. (2001) Asperger Syndrome, the Universe and Everything. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Hoopman, K. (2001) Blue Bottle Mystery An Asperger Adventure. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Jackson, L (2002) Freaks, Geeks and Asperger Syndrome: A User Guide to Adolescence. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Oqaz, N. (2002) Buster and the Amazing Daisy Adventures with Asperger Syndrome. Jessica Kingsley Publisihers, London.
Vermeulen, P. (2000) I Am Special Introducing Children and Young People to their Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Many children with ASD have issues with dressing. This may present itself in a variety of ways: refusing to wear any clothes; refusing to wear certain clothes; removing clothes once on; preferring to wear certain items repeatedly; disliking zips and/or labels.
These difficulties can occur for a range of reasons including: sensory issues; fear of change; difficulties with motor skills; organisation and planning difficulties.
After a period of assessment to establish the exact nature of the difficulty a structured support plan can be effective.
Professionals that can give you advice and information include:
Clinical Psychologist
Community Paediatrician
Speech and Language Therapist
Autism Advisor
Community Learning Disability Nurse
Health Visitor
School Nurse
For further information
Bogdashina, O. (2003) Sensory Perceptual Issues in Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Different Sensory Experiences Different Perceptual Worlds. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Mathews, J and Williams, J. (2000) The Self-Help Guide for Special Kids and Their Parents. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London and Philadelphia.
Sicle-Kira, C. (2003) Autism Spectrum Disorders The Complete Guide. Vermilion, London.
Many children with ASD have sensory difficulties. Some children are hypersensitive (oversensitive) and will try and block out stimulation. Others are hyposensitive (under sensitive) and will crave stimulation. Children can often fluctuate between the two.
Common signs include: walking on tip toes, covering ears, spinning, rocking, reacting adversely to smells and tastes, a dislike of certain materials on skin, smelling fingers, cannot tolerate touch, avoids balancing activities, a dislike of dark or bright lights, an attraction towards light, moving fingers or objects in front of the eyes, likes vibration, under or overreacts to heat/cold/pain, likes pressure, tight clothes, mouths and licks objects.
Professionals that can give you advice and information include:
Occupational Therapist
Clinical Psychologist
Community Paediatrician
Speech and Language Therapist
Autism Advisor
Community Learning Disability Nurse
Educational Psychologist
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Autism Outreach Education Teacher
For further information
Bogdashina, O. (2003) Sensory Perceptual Issues in Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Different Sensory Experiences Different Perceptual Worlds. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Jackson, J. (2004) Multicoloured Mayhem. Parenting the Many Shades of Adolescents and Children with Autism, Asperger Syndrome and AD/HD. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Williams, D. (1998) Autism and Sensing. The Unlost Instinct. Jessica Kingsley Publsihers, London.
Children with ASD can experience a range of difficulties many of which can be explained by the nature of ASD as a pervasive developmental disorder. However, they may also have difficulties that are explained by other conditions.
It is not uncommon for people with ASD to also have other conditions alongside their ASD. Some conditions commonly occurring alongside ASD are: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD); Dyspraxia; Dyslexia; Obsessional Compulsive Disorder; Depression; Fragile X Syndrome, Epilepsy etc.
Professionals that can give you advice and information include:
Clinical Psychologist
Community Paediatrician
Psychiatrist
Speech and Language Therapist
Educational Psychologist
Autism Advisor
Community Learning Disability Nurse
Health Visitor
Autism Outreach Education Teacher
For more information
Bogdashina, O. (2003) Sensory Perceptual Issues in Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Different Sensory Experiences Different Perceptual Worlds. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Gillberg, C. (2002) A Guide to Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge University Press.
Kurtz, L. (2003) How to Help a Clumsy Child. Strategies for Young Children with developmental Motor Concerns. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Munden, A and Arcelus, J. (1999) The AD/HD Handbook A Guide for Parents and Professionals on Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Thomsen, P.H. (1999) From Thoughts to Obsessions. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Central Coherence is a current psychological theory, first described by Uta Frith. It is the process by which all incoming stimuli are organised and interpreted in a coherent manner. Central Coherence enables us to draw meaning and make connections from the sets of information we perceive.
Children with ASD often perceive stimuli as isolated parts. Details dominate over the meaning of the whole. Stimuli are not necessarily processed as being related. They may perceive things without interpretation and understanding.
A weak Central Coherence can cause many difficulties, for example: difficulty transferring skills learnt in one environment to another; difficulty in integrating things and drawing connections; difficulty in understanding events; may not recognise a familiar environment if approached from a different direction; insistence on sameness; difficulty in identifying relevant and irrelevant information from the senses.
Professionals who are able to provide advice and information in this area include:
Clinical Psychologist
Educational Psychologist
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Community Learning Disabilities Nurse
Autism Advisor
Community Paediatrician
Speech and Language Therapist
Autism Outreach Education Teacher
For further information
Bogdashina, O. (2003) Sensory Perceptual Issues in Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Different Sensory Experiences Different Perceptual Worlds. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Cumine, V., Leach, L and Stevenson, G. (2000) Autism In The Early Years A Practical Guide. David Fulton Publishers.
Gillberg, C. (2002) A Guide to Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge University Press.
Frith, U. (1991) Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Vermuelen, P. (2001) Autistic Thinking This Is The Title. Jessica Kingsley, London.
By the age of 3-4 years typically developing children begin to learn that other people have thoughts and feelings that are different to their own. Knowing this enables children to interpret the world through understanding people’s actions. We understand people’s actions by being able to think about their beliefs, desires, intentions and emotions.
Psychological research shows that some children with ASD don’t develop Theory of Mind until their teens, others do not fully develop Theory of Mind and some are not able to develop Theory of Mind at all.
An undeveloped Theory of Mind presents difficulties within each area of the Triad of Impairments (social interaction, social communication and flexibility of thought).
For example: inability to predict others behaviour; inability to understand others perspectives; inability to understand or predict others’ desires and/or intentions; difficulty reflecting upon own behaviour and the behaviour of others; not responding in conversation; following own agenda.
Professionals who are able to provide advice and information in this area include:
Clinical Psychologist
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Community Learning Disabilities Nurse
Autism Advisor
Community Paediatrician
Speech and Language Therapist
Educational Psychologist
Autism Outreach Education Teacher
For further information
Baron-Cohen, S. (1995) Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theroy of Mind, London;MIT Press.
Cumine, V., Leach, L and Stevenson, G. (2000) Autism In The Early Years A Practical Guide. David Fulton Publishers.
Gillberg, C. (2002) A Guide to Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge University Press.
Happe, F. (1994) Autism an Introduction to Psychological Theory, UCL Press.
Howlin, P., Baron-Cohen, S and Hadwin, J. (1999) Teaching Children with Autism to Mind-Read A Practical Guide. Wiley.
Executive Functioning is the ability to plan complex cognitive tasks. Executive Functioning occurs in the frontal lobes of the brain. It includes activities such as; planning to attain a goal, keeping to a strategy to attain that goal, not being distracted by other immediate but incorrect responses. Important to this are the abilities to think of a sequence of events and their order, flexibility of thought and actions and a concept of cause and effect.
Children with ASD often have deficits in the area of Executive Function. Common problems include: organising self and belongings; planning; sequencing movements (e.g. for dressing, washing, tidying, cooking); sequencing thoughts; impulsivity.
Professionals who are able to provide advice and information in this area include:
Clinical Psychologist
Health Visitor
School Nurse
Community Learning Disabilities Nurse
Autism Advisor
Community Paediatrician
Speech and Language Therapist
Educational Psychologist
Autism Outreach Education Teacher
For further information
Cumine, V., Leach, L and Stevenson, G. (2000) Autism In The Early Years A Practical Guide. David Fulton Publishers.
Gillberg, C. (2002) A Guide to Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge University Press.
Lawson, W. (2001) Understanding and Working With the Autistic Spectrum. An Insiders View. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
Trevarthen, C., Aitken, K. Papoudi,, D. and Robarts, J. (1998) Children with Autism. Diagnosis and Interventions to Meet Their Needs. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.